Jangan Memalak Negara

Oleh : Taufik Mubarak*

‘ Janganlah selalu berfikir apa yang akan diberikan negara untukmu tetapi selalu berfikirlah apa yang akan engkau berikan kepada negara”

Sebuah ungkapan filosofis yang masih tersisa dari mata pelajaran Pendidikan Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan di bangku SMA. Ungkapan ini tiba-tiba kembali terekam di alam sadarku ketika dana aspirasi senilai 15 miliar per anggota DPR diwacanakan oleh sebagian kalangan anggota dewan yang terhormat. Wacana ini pertama kali diusulkan oleh Fraksi Partai Golkar dalam rapat paripurna DPR pada tanggal 25 mei 2009. Apabila usulan ini disetujui, negara harus menyiapkan anggaran sebesar Rp. 8,4 triliun per tahun untuk 560 anggota dewan. Menurut Harry Azhar Aziz, anggaran ini bertujuan untuk mengoptimalkan peran anggota DPR terhadap daerah pemilihannya
Suara kontra mulai bermunculan dari berbagai kalangan. ICW (Indonesia Coruption Watch) menilai dana aspirasi Rp 15 miliar yang diajukan anggota DPR merupakan pembajakan APBN. Mereka meminta Presiden SBY segera mengambil sikap politik atas usulan itu. Pemerintah yang diwakili oleh menteri keuangan Agus Martowardoyo sepertinya berada satu kubu dengan ICW. Menurut menteri keuangan pengucuran anggaran itu berisiko memunculkan dampak kontraproduktif karena alokasi dana per daerah pemilihan tersebut tidak akan membantu upaya pemerintah terkait dengan kebijakan menyeimbangkan pendapatan negara dari unsur pajak di tiap daerah. Ketika usulan ini disepakati maka daerah yang memiliki jumlah penduduk padat tentu akan mendapatkan anggaran lebih besar. Sebab, keterwakilan para anggota DPR itu adalah berdasar jumlah penduduk di suatu daerah. Dapil Jawa dan Bali hampir dipastikan akan mendapatkan anggaran lebih besar daripada dapil luar Jawa dan Bali. Begitu pula, dapil-dapil di wilayah bagian barat Indonesia yang penduduknya lebih padat tentu akan mendapatkan alokasi lebih tinggi daripada dapil-dapil di wilayah bagian timur.
Ditinjau dari segi regulasi, usulan ini berpotensi melanggar UU No. 17 tahun 2005 tentang keuangan negara, khusunya pasal 3 yang menyatakan menyatakan bahwa keuangan negara dikelola secara tertib, efisien, ekonomis, transparan, dan bertanggung jawab dengan memperhatikan rasa keadilan dan kepatutan. Berdasarkan regulasi ini maka pelanggaran terhadap efisiensi pengelolaan negara berpotensi terjaji. Penganggaran yang membutuhkan dana 8,4 trilin per tahun dapat dikatakan kurang efisien mengingat anggaran negara yang masih sangat terbatas dibanding dengan beberapa negara lain.
Usulan dari sebagian kalangan anggota dewan tersebut dapat dikatakan sebuah terobosan baru yang dapat bernilai positif. Hal ini karena anggaran ini setidaknya dapat digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan konsitituen yang tidak ter-cover oleh anggaran dari pemerintah (eksekutif). Akan tetapi melihat kondisi keuangan negara saat ini maka sepertinya usulan ini belum saatnya direalisasikan. Anggaran yang dimiliki negara saat ini akan kewalahan untuk memenuhi usulan tersebut. Masih banyak sektor yang membutuhkan anggaran yang tak sedikit. Khusus untuk sektor pendidikan, anggaran yang dibutuhkan sebesar 20 persen dari total APBN. Selain itu utang luar negeri yang terus menumpuk juga membutuhkan anggaran tak sedikit untuk pembayarannya.

Untuk itu pemaksaan agar usulan ini diterima oleh anggota dewan yang lain baiknya diurungkan. Karena ketika hal ini terus dipaksakan untuk diterima maka apa bedanya dengan tukang palak di jalan-jalan yang selau memeras korbannya. Mungkin bedanya hanyalah pada pada korban. Jika pemalak di pinggir jalan korbannya adalah para individu maka pemalak berdasi di gedung dewan korbannya adalah negara. Jadi jangan memalak negara. Barangkali kalimat pembuka dari tulisan ini dapat menjadi bahan perenungan. Bukankah negara ini telah terlalu banyak berkorban untuk kita. Sudah saatnya berkorban untuknya.
Hal yang paling rasional dilakukan oleh anggota dewan untuk saat ini adalah bagaimana perfikir agar program-program pemerintah saat ini dapat berjalan lancar dan memenuhi target. Untuk menjamin kelancaran dari program pemerintah maka peningkatan pendapatan negara harus menjadi salah satu prioritas utama. Peran anggota dewan dalam hal ini adalah menemukan jalan agar pendapatan negara meningkat sekaligus berfikir bagaimana cara agar utang luar negeri dikurangi atau dilunasi. Ketika keuangan negara memungkinkan untuk memenuhi keinginan sebagian anggota dewan tersebut, maka barulah direalisasikan.
Pembenahan internal anggota dewan juga mutlak dilakukan agar program ini berhasil ketika direalisasikan nantinya. Hal yang paling urgen dan mendesak yang perlu dilakukan di internal anggota dewan adalah perlunya reformasi moral. Hal ini karena hingga saat ini masih saja ada oknum anggota dewan yang belum terbebas dari praktek KKN dan berbagai bentuk penyimpangan lainnya. Reformasi moral ini jangan hanya sampai pada selembar kertas yang diberi nama undang-undang dan sebagainya, tetapi lebih dari pada itu implementasi nyata dalam bentuk praksis jauh lebih penting.

Mengkaji Pemulihan Hak Pilih Anggota TNI/Polri

Oleh : Taufik Mubarak*
Wacana pemulihan hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri kembali bergulir ke ruang pablik. Wacana ini sebenarnya sudah diawali sejak pasca pemilu 2004. Wacana ini berawal dari keinginan mantan Panglima TNI Jenderal Endriartono Sutarto agar anggota TNI kembali diberi hak pilih pada pemilu 2009. Hal ini kemudian kembali mengemuka setelah Presiden SBY memberikan restu atas wacana ini pada pekan lalu. Publik pun terbagi menjadi pihak yang pro dan kontra.
Pihak yang pro antara lain beralasan bahwa anggota TNI merupakan bagian dari warga Negara yang mempunyai hak yang sama dengan warga Negara lain untuk memilih atau menyalurkan aspirasinya pada pemilu. Menurut mereka, di hampir semua Negara anggota militer diberikan hak yang sama dengan warga Negara lain, untuk memilih pada pemilu. Bahkan di beberapa Negara tentara tidak hanya diberi hak pilih tetapi juga hak untuk dipilih di tingkatan lokal. Sementara pihak yang kontra beralasan bahwa hingga kini belum saatnya TNI/Polri dipulihkan hak pilihnya karena reformasi di tubuh kedua institusi ini belum berjalan sebagaimana mestinya.
Ditinjau dari asal muasal pencabutan hak pilih bagi TNI/Polri, maka kita tak dapat terlepas dengan masa Orde Baru, dimana kedua institusi ini dijadikan alat untuk mempertahankan rezim pemerintahan orde baru yang dipimpin oleh Presiden Suharto yang notabene berasal dari kalangan militer. Untuk mempertahankan kekuasaannya, Presiden Suharto tidak hanya menjadikan TNI/Polri sebagai alat pertahanan dan keamanan, tetapi juga menjadikannya sebagai kekuatan sosial, politik, dan ekonomi yang punya akses berlebih untuk mengatur kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.
Posisi istimewa TNI/Polri dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara kemudian berakhir pada tahun 1998, setelah terjadinya gerakan reformasi yang berhasil meruntuhkan rezim yang telah memberinya tempat isitimewa yaitu Rezim Orde Baru. Reformasi di tubuh TNI/Polri pun mulai dilaksanakan dengan mengubah paradigm, peran dan fungsi, serta tugas TNI/Polri. Dari segi konstitusi, reformasi tersebut dapat dilihat dari Tap MPR No.VI/2000 tentang pemisahan TNI dan Polri serta Tap MPR No.VII/2000 tentang Peran TNI dan Polri. Sementara peraturan yang mengatur hak pilih anggota TNI tertuang dalam pasal 5 Tap MPR No VII/MPR/2004 yang menyebutkan, "Anggota Tentara Nasional Indonesia tidak menggunakan hak memilih dan dipilih. Keikutsertaan Tentara Nasional Indonesia dalam menentukan arah kebijakan nasional disalurkan melalui Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) paling lama sampai dengan tahun 2004". Peraturan-peraturan pada prinsipnya bertujuan agar tercipta sikap profesional dari kedua institusi ini dalam menjalankan tugas dan wewenangnya.
Melihat sejarah masa lalu TNI/Polri dibidang perpolitikan, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa pencabutan hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri dilatari oleh penyimpangan yang dilakukan oleh internal kedua istitusi ini sendiri. Mereka melampaui kewenangan yang seharusnya mereka perankan yaitu menjaga pertahanan dan keamanan Negara. Hal ini kemudian diperparah dengan penyimpangan yang dilakukan oleh mereka dalam menjalankan peran superiornya. Mereka melakukan tekanan yang represif terhadap masyarakat sipil yang salah satu bentuknya dengan pembatasan gerak masyarakat sipil dalam berbagai hal. Tidak hanya sampai disitu, mereka juga melakukan monopoli kekuasaan baik di Lembaga Legislatif, Yudikatif, maupun Eksekutif. Khusus di Lembaga Eksekutif, mereka memasukkan anggota aktif untuk menjabat Kepala Daerah baik di Daerah Tingkat I maupun Daerah Tingkat II. Sementara di Lembaga Legislatif dapat dilihat dari pembentukan Fraksi TNI/Polri di DPR. Tekanan yang diberikan oleh militer terhadap masyarakat sipil kemudian membuat masyarakat sipil bereaksi dengan memberikan dengan tekanan balik yang klimaksnya pada reformasi 1998. Reformasi ini kemudian melahirkan agenda reformasi terhadap institusi militer dalam hal ini TNI/Polri. Jadi dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa pencabutan hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri disebabkan oleh trauma politik masa lalu kalangan sipil terhadap sejarah perpolitikan anggota TNI/Polri. Pencabutan hak pilih ini semacam sangsi terhadap kesalahan masa lalu TNI/Polri.
Pencabutan Hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri terus berlaku sampai pemilu 2009. Ketika wacana ini kembali mencuat ke ruang publik, pertanyaan utama yang kemudian mengemuka adalah apakah TNI/Polri sudah siap untuk diberi kembali hak pilihnya? Apakah mereka sudah bisa memberikan jaminan untuk tidak melakukan penyimpangan terhadap hak politiknya ketika sudah dikembalikan/dipulihkan?
Penyikapan terhadap wacana ini harus dilakukan dengan hati-hati dan dengan pertimbangan yang matang oleh anggota TNI/Polri, khususnya para petingginya, yang merupakan penentu utama pengambilan kebijakan. Pemulihan hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri sebaiknya tidak dipaksakan baik oleh pihak TNI/Polri maupun pihak lain . Khusus pihak TNI/Polri, sebaiknya sebelum menyatakan kesiapan untuk dipulihkan kembali hak pilihnya, mereka terlebih dahulu harus memastikan apakah reformasi di kubu TNI/Polri sudah berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Jika hal ini tidak dilakukan, maka pemulihan hak pilih anggota TNI/Polri hanya akan menimbulkan masalah internal.
Beberapa hal negatif bagi internal yang kemungkinan terjadi jika TNI/Polri meyatakan kesiapannya menerima kembali hak pilihnya, padalah reformasi di kubu TNI/Polri belum tuntas seperti, pertama : terjadinya perpecahan internal di dalam kubu TNI/Polri utamanya disebabkan oleh masalah pilihan dalam pemilu. Hal ini karena dalam realitasnya, banyak pensiunan TNI/Polri yang ikut bersaing dalam pemilu, khususnya Pemilu Legislatif. Dengan banyaknya pensiunan yang ambil bagian dalam pemilu, maka peluang terjadinya pengkotakan tidak sehat antar anggota TNI/Polri aktif dalam politik menjadi terbuka. Pengkotakan tidak sehat inilah yang menyebabkan perpecahan. Kedua : Anggota TNI/Polri rawan ditarik kembali masuk kedalam ranah politik praktis oleh pensiunan mereka sendiri yang terlibat politik praktis. Pelibatan mereka yang sangat memungkinkan adalah pelibatan secara informal. Hal seperti ini sangat mungkin terjadi, apalagi dalam kubu militer mempunyai kultur yang namanya senioritas dan sistem komando.
Untuk itu, reformasi di kubu TNI/Polri mutlak dilakukan sebelum mereka mendapat pemulihan hak pilih. Setidaknya ada beberapa hal yang harus dilakukan oleh TNI/Polri sebagai rangkaian dari reformasi internal anatar lain: Pertama membagun sikap professional pada anggota TNI/Polri dalam menjalankan tugasnya. Mereka harus menjalankan tugas dan wewenang yang diberikan kepadanya dengan baik dengan tidak melampaui batas kewenangan yang telah diberikan. Selain itu anggota TNI/Polri harus merespon perkembangan eksternal, guna dijadikan pertimbangan dalam menjalankan reformasi di internalnya. Kedua, memperbaiki kesejahteraan anggotanya utamanya yang berpangkat rendah. Kesejahteraan dapat menghindarkan anggota TNI/Polri dari kemungkinan pemamfaatan jasa mereka oleh pihak tertentu untuk meraih kepentingan pribadi atau golongannya dalam bidang politik, khususnya pada saat pemilu. Peningkatan kesejahteraan ini salah satunya dapat dilakukan dengan cara mengurangi perekrutan anggota TNI/Polri. Hal ini karena dalam perkembangan dunia pertahanan keamanan, jumlah anggota militer tak lagi menjadi penetu utama, tetapi tergantikan oleh teknologi. Dengan pengurangan rekrutmen anggota TNI/Polri, maka akan ada anggaran yang tidak terpakai. Anggaran yang tidak terpakai inilah dapat dialihkan pengalokasiannya untuk teknologi pertahanan keamanan serta untuk meningkatkan kesejateraan anggotanya.
*Penulis adalah Pengurus KAMMI Daerah Makassar.

Pembuatan dan Sifat Bio-pot untuk Pembibitan Tanaman Hutan

ABSTRAK

Taufik Mubarak (M 121 05 009) Pembuatan dan Sifat Bio-pot Untuk Pembibitan Tanaman Hutan Dibawah Bimbingan Musrizal Muin dan Muh. Restu

Tujuan dilakukan penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan wadah ramah lingkungan untuk persemaian tanaman hutan dengan bahan organik sebagai bahan dasar. Penemuan ini meliputi teknologi pembuatan dan penentuan sifat produk yang dihasilkan. Kegunaan dari penelitian ini adalah produk yang ditemukan dapat digunakan dalam persemaian tanaman hutan sebagai alternatif untuk mencegah kerusakan tanah akibat penggunaan polybag berbahan plastik.

Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan November 2009-Juni 2010. Penelitian bertempat di Laboratorium Keteknikan dan Diversifikasi Produk Hasil Hutan, Program Studi Teknologi Hasil Hutan dan Laboratorium Silvikultur, Program Studi Manajemen Hutan, Fakultas Kehutanan, serta Laboratorium Kimia Makanan Ternak, Fakultas Peternakan, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar.

Hasil Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa bio-pot yang dihasilkan dari jenis campuran kertas koran dengan kotoran ternak merupakan bio-pot dengan daya serap air tertinggi sedangkan bio-pot jenis campuran kertas koran dengan daun leguminaceae merupakan jenis bio-pot dengan daya serap air terendah. Bio-pot akan mengalami kerusakan di lapangan ketika diangkat dalam kondisi jenuh air sehingga pengangkutannya hanya dapat dilakukan pada saat bio-pot dalam kondisi kering dan telah bersatu dengan media tanam. Unsur nitrogen (N), posfor (P), kalium (K) yang terkandung di dalam bio-pot yang terbuat dari campuran kertas koran dengan kotoran ternak dan campuran kertas koran dengan daun leguminaceae masing-masing sebesar 37,37 ppm, 828 ppm, 3660 ppm dan 24,87 ppm, 544,77 ppm, 3380 ppm serta dapat tercuci untuk digunakan oleh tanaman dengan laju pencucian masing-masing sebesar 0,035%,0,28%, 0,55% dan 0,088%, 0,27%, 0,59% dalam 6 hari.

The Tundra Biome

Climate:

In the tundra, conditions are cold, with an annual average temperature less than 5° C, and precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) less than 100 mm per year (see figure at right). The summer is brief, with temperatures above freezing lasting for only a few weeks at most. However, this "warm" summer coincides with periods of almost 24 hour daylight, so plant growth can be explosive.

World Distribution:

The map below shows the tundra spreading across the northern hemisphere. Tundra is largely restricted to the northern hemisphere; there simply is no comparable land mass in the southern hemisphere with the appropriate climate. The areas of the southern hemisphere at high enough latitudes is small, and these areas have their temperatures moderated by the proximity of surrounding oceans. Parts of Greenland extend north far enough that the tundra is replaced by snow and ice; in contrast Canadian and Russian islands at these latitudes are again influenced by the surrounding oceans and may thus exhibit tundra conditions. It should be noted that a similar habitat, alpine tundra, exists in mountains of the alpine biome.

Indicator Plant Species:

A wide variety of plants species can be found on the tundra, as can be seen in the accompanying pictures. What most of them have in common are growth characteristics - they tend to grow low to the ground. Among the common types of tundra plants are willows, sedges and grasses, many in dwarf forms compared to their growth forms in warmer climes. Lichens and mosses (far below) are also important, particularly in the harshest climates.	Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
Lichen

Indicator Animal Species:

Caribou & Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are perhaps THE indicator animal species for the tundra. The species, Rangifer tarandus, is panarctic, but differences are seen between the representatives in the Old World and in North America. The Reindeer is the Old World form, it is smaller than the Caribou and has been domesticated. It is herded by northern peoples across Europe and Russia. The caribou is the North American form. It is larger and still wild. It migrates from summer to winter grazing areas, following the melting of the snow in the spring. A sizeable herd remains in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Above: Reindeer antlers as the characteristic velvet (the layer of skin, fur and blood vessels that nourish the developing antlers) is being shed at the end of antler development for the year. Both male and female reindeer and caribou have antlers; the females use theirs for defense while the males also use theirs in mating competitions. Other important tundra animals include musk oxen, wolves, ptarmigan, snow geese, tundra swans, Dall sheep, brown bears (and polar bears near the coast). A number of small rodents and rodent-like animals are crucial parts of this ecosystem as well.	Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
	Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

Ecological Notes: The ecology of the tundra is controlled by the cold climate and the northern latitude. The former means that a unique soil structure, permafrost, forms and dominates the biology. Permafrost is a layer of soil that remains frozen year-round. The soil above it may thaw during the summer, but the soil below remains frozen and thus biologically inactive. Further, the permafrost forms a barrier; in temperate climes many animals overwinter by burrowing down into the soil to a point below where the soil freezes. This is not possible in the tundra soils, and thus animals must contend with freezing over the winter. It is no accident that there are no reptiles or amphibians in the tundra. The long day length that accompanies the short summer is a boon to plants, which are able to photosynthesize 24 hours a day in some places. This leads to rapid plant growth. A surprising number of insects are able to endure the harsh winters (many as frost-resistant eggs); these also undergo rapid development in the summer. Many bird species migrate from southern areas to the tundra each year for the reduced competition and plentiful insect harvest; this rich diet enables them to rear their young in an otherwise bleak environment. Threats: There aren't a lot of people running out to build houses on the tundra. Development is not a major problem, nor is there much pressure from human populations (although pollution problems near human settlements can be severe; it is a great technical challenge to effect efficient sewage treatment in a cold environment, for instance). The biggest threats come from airborne pollutants, which have brought measurable levels of pollutants such as DDT and PCB's to even remote areas.

The biggest threat, however, is from oil and gas development and the resulting global warming. The Arctic National Wildlife refuge mentioned earlier has the misfortune of sitting on about a 6 month supply of oil. Despite the great difficulty in extracting this oil, corporate interests and their pet politicians just can't seem to let the idea of drilling here go. Instead of promoting fuel conservation, which could easily make up for the oil not retrieved from this arctic paradise, they continue to push the propaganda on the American people that drilling here will somehow offset high oil prices. An more sever threat comes from global warming, however. As the planet warms (a result of burning all that fossil fuel from elsewhere), the permafrost melts and tundra ecosystems collapse. Further, the permafrost contains a significant amount of dead plant material (grown in earlier and warmer times); as the permafrost warms this material begins to decay, releasing even more CO₂ into the atmosphere and accelerating global warming.

Tour:

Arctic Tundra and Alaska Pipeline - Alaska
During the short summer, the tundra appears much like a temperate grassland. Ironically, one of the best ways to access the tundra is via the highway that accompanies the Alaska pipeline from Barrow down to Valdez. The section of pipeline seen here is raised off the ground by special stands. These stands are sunk into the permafrost and designed not to conduct heat lest the warmth from the heated oil (the oil has to be heated to thin it enough to pump economically) thaw the permafrost and cause the pipeline to collapse. Raising the pipeline also allow caribou to pass under it freely. During the summer the snow melts; much is carried away by the streams winding through the tundra (right), other water collects in small lakes and wetlands (below left).	Tundra Stream - Alaska
Arctic Tundra - Alaska	Tundra Stream and Alaska Pipeline - Alaska
Arctic Tundra - Alaska	Arctic Tundra and Mountains- Alaska
All of these tundra shots (except the reindeer, which were photographed at the Cleveland Zoo) were taken by Sarah Beck, Marietta College class of 2001. In the summer of 2000, Sarah worked with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute on research they were doing in Alaska. Sarah was gracious enough to share these photos with us until we are able to mount our own expedition to the tundra.
Adapted by : http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/tundra.htm

Bermuda subtropical conifer forests

Content Partner: World Wildlife Fund (other articles)

Article Topics: Biodiversity, Conservation biology and Ecology

This article has been reviewed and approved by the following Topic Editor: Mark McGinley (other articles)

Last Updated: December 1, 2006

Introduction

Paget Marsh, Bermuda, UK (Photograph by Catherine Mastny)

The Bermuda islands were once covered in dense forest of endemic tree species, with mangrove forests lining the coasts and inland saltwater ponds. The islands are distinguished as having the northernmost mangrove forests in the Atlantic, which is made possible by the warm Gulf Stream current. Bermuda’s isolation led to the evolution of many endemic species, including the endangered Bermuda petrel (Pterodroma cahow), the Bermuda skink (Eumeces longirostris), and many endemic invertebrates. Restricted to this small archipelago, all endemic species are especially vulnerable to introduced predators and alien pests, and unfortunately the islands have seen the extinction of many species since the time of human settlement. Due to intense human activity, only very small areas of natural habitat remain on Bermuda today. Though the islands have a well-managed and well-funded system of protected areas, this is one of the world’s most densely populated regions. Additionally, Bermuda is subject to intense pressure from a heavy tourist industry.

Location and General Description

The Bermuda ecoregion is a crescent-shaped chain of some 150 coral limestone islands and islets, formed along the submerged rim of a long-extinct volcano. It is situated in the western Atlantic Ocean a little over 900 kilometers from the North American coast. Most of the land area is composed of 7 main islands that encompass 53 km². This land area is surrounded by about 750 km² of shallow reef platform, the most northerly in the Atlantic. The climate is subtropical, with mean air temperatures ranging from 19 to 30 °C. The average humidity is 77 percent, and the annual precipitation (146 cm) is distributed relatively evenly throughout the year.

The ecoregion is situated on a more than 75-meter-thick coralline limestone cap, covering a volcanic pedestal that rises to just below sea level. Roughly 110 million years ago (MYA), volcanic action along the mid-Atlantic ridge created a 2000-meter-high seamount, which was topped off by a second eruption some 33 MYA. Over time, changes in sea level led to the deposition on this seamount of alternating layers of soil (paleosols) and wind-blown calcareous sand. These dunes solidified during the Pleistocene into a cover of soil and highly porous limestone.

Paget Marsh, Bermuda, UK (Photograph by Catherine Mastny)

Bermuda's topography is moderately hilly and low, with the highest elevation reaching only 79 meters (m). The shoreline is composed of bays and inlets, with coral sand beaches lining the shores, primarily in the south. The ecoregion has no rivers or surface streams, and the limestone supports a shallow freshwater lens in only 20 percent of the land area, resulting in fewer than 20 brackish and freshwater ponds. This includes a total of 17 peat marshes.

The ecoregion originally contained two predominant vegetative features: a once densely forested plateau and mangrove forests. The woodlands were characterized by three endemic trees, each of which is listed as threatened by the IUCN: Bermuda cedar (Juniperus bermudiana), Bermuda palmetto (Sabal bermudana), and Bermuda olivewood (Elaeodendron laneanum). Also present are the threatened yellow-wood (Zanthoxylem flavum) and southern hackberry (Celtis laevigata). Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) dominates the understory of peat marshes, along with St. Andrew’s cross (Ascyrum hypericoides), Bermuda sedge (Carex bermudiana), saw grass (Cladium jamaicensis), and ferns. Bermuda maidenhair fern (Adiantum bellum) is found in cave damps.

Warmed by the Gulf Stream, the ecoregion’s mangrove forests are the most northerly in the Atlantic. These forests are isolated, small in size, and relatively low in tree diversity, with only three species present: red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus). An unusual feature of these mangroves is that roughly one-third are situated around inland saltwater ponds, which are mostly tidal and connected to the sea by submarine fissures. These inland forests are typically monospecific, with either red or black mangrove present. The remaining two-thirds of mangroves are located in coastal bays, where they display typical mangrove zonation. The most frequent coastal bay mangrove associations are with red algae, green algae, and three flowering plants: Asparagus sprengeri, Borrichia frutescens, and Sesuvium portulacastrum. The different pond mangroves tend to display unique assemblages of species.

Biodiversity Features

As many as 320 bird species have been observed in the ecoregion. But Bermuda’s position as an isolated oceanic island has contributed in large part to an overall low diversity of species in most taxa, low endemism, and absence of native mammals, amphibians, or large predators. Low floral diversity in particular is attributed to isolation and lack of anthropogenic influence prior to the 1600s. The ecoregion’s biological composition is also a product of prehistoric sea-level fluctuations of up to 150 meters, which alternately favored marine and terrestrial species and led to the demise of land snails, many endemic birds, and a tortoise. Other factors limiting biodiversity include the ecoregion’s low elevation, small size, geologic composition and age, as well as regional ocean currents and past and present climate and weather patterns.

Bermuda is home to 165 native vascular plants, and 15 of these are endemic. Endemic trees include: Bermuda cedar (Juniperus bermudiana), Bermuda palmetto (Sabal bermudana), and Bermuda olivewood (Elaeodendron laneanum). Other vascular plant endemics are: Bermuda spike rush (Eloecharis bermudiana), Bermuda sedge (Carex bermudiana), wild pepper (Peperomia septentrionalis), wild Bermuda bean (Phaseolus lignosus), St. Andrew’s cross (Ascyrum hypericoides), Bermuda snowberry (Chiococca bermudiana), Darrell’s fleabane (Erigeron darrellianus), and Bermudiana (Sisyrinchium bermudiana). There are also 4 endemic ferns: Governor Laffan’s fern (Diplazium laffanianum), Bermuda maidenhair fern (Adiantum bellum), Bermuda shield fern (Goniopteris bermudiana), and Bermuda cave fern (Ctenitis sloanei). The two endemic mosses are Campylopus bermudiana and Trichostomum bermudanum. Also present are 40 endemic fungi and ten endemic lichens.

Bermuda contains no native mammal or amphibian residents, although four species of visiting bats have been recorded. Two of the ecoregion’s bird taxa are endemic, representing a low endemism rate of less than one percent. These are the cahow, or Bermuda petrel (Pterodroma cahow), and the locally-termed "chick-of-the-village" (Vireo griseus bermudianus), a subspecies of the white-eyed vireo that has shorter wings, a larger head, and stout legs. The only native terrestrial reptile is the endemic Bermuda skink (Eumeces longirostris), a rock lizard that is also unique in being the sole non-avian, native land-vertebrate. There are at least 41 endemic insects, including 11 species of Lepidoptera, 17 Diptera, seven dragonflies, and three damselflies. There is also one potentially endemic spider, 11 endemic terrestrial mollusks, and one (now-extinct) endemic nemertean, Pantinonemertes agricola.

The ecoregion has witnessed the recent extinction of many endemic species, including the Bermuda spike rush (Eloecharis bermudiana) and the only endemic nemertean, Pantinonemertes agricola. An estimated 16 insect species have disappeared in the last century, including the flightless grasshopper, Paroxya bermudensis, and seven Diptera. The near-eradication of Bermuda cedar in the 1940s led to extinction of two associated endemic insects, the cicada Tibicen bermudiana, and the geometrical moth Semiothisa ochrifascia. Other losses include the apparent extinction of at least two endemic land snails, Poecilozonites spp., probably due to the introduction of carnivorous snails. Among birds, at least ten presumed endemics are known from Pleistocene fossils including the crane Baeopteryx latipes, the duck Anas paschyscelus, four species of rail, a woodpecker, a hawk, a heavy-billed passerine, and a small owl. Most of these birds are thought to have gone extinct due to sea-level changes before human settlement, although the passerine and owl are were present at the time of the first settlers. Finally, scientists are also preparing a description of a recently excavated fossil land tortoise.

Highly endangered endemics include the Bermuda petrel (Pterodroma cahow), whose nesting sites are currently restricted to a few outlying islets, and the Bermuda skink (Eumeces longirostris). Rare endemic plants include Bermuda olivewood (Elaeodendron laneanum), wild Bermuda bean (Phaseolus lignosus), and Bermuda sedge (Carex bermudiana), which is confined to Paget Marsh and 5 upland sites. The endemic fern Diplazium laffanianum is extinct in the wild, but a few individuals still survive in the Bermuda Botanical Gardens.

Current Status

Currently, some ten percent of the ecoregion’s land area is covered by forest or woodland. Within this, only very small and fragmented areas of natural habitat survive. An estimated 95 percent of the surviving population of native Bermuda cedar (Juniperus bermudiana) was destroyed between 1946 and 1951, following the accidental introduction of two coccoid scale insects. Only an estimated one percent of the original cedar forest survived the blight. Subsequent reforestation using a scale-resistant strain has returned the cedar to roughly ten percent of its former abundance, though these efforts have been hampered by the introduction of fast-growing casuarinas and other exotics into much of the cedar habitat. Of the 116 hectares of inland peat marshes present in the ecoregion in 1900, only some 48 hectares remain, including the 19.6 hectare Devonshire Marsh, Pembroke Marsh, and Paget Marsh. Only small, scattered areas of mangroves remain, totaling 16.7 hectares in 1980. The largest mangrove forests are found at Hungry Bay Mangrove Swamp and Mangrove Lake.

Bermuda holds the distinction of having passed the first conservation laws in the New World, protecting the cahow (Pterodroma cahow) and other birds as early as 1616 and limiting the uses of native cedar as early as 1622. A comprehensive and well-managed protected areas system currently exists, comprising 12 nature reserves that cover some 48 hectares, as well as 63 parks. The 25-acre Paget Marsh Nature Reserve is the best surviving example of native cedar, palmetto, and mangrove forests. The largest wildlife sanctuary is Spittal Pond, covering some 60 acres and home to at least 25 species of waterfowl. Other important protected areas include Devonshire and Pembroke Marshes, Warwick Pond, and the upland hills of Castle Harbour and Walsingham.

One important conservation success story has been the recovery of the endemic Bermuda petrel. Early visitors to Bermuda had been terrified by the cahow’s screeching cries, but they soon found the bird easy to catch and good to eat. Birds that were overlooked by humans were quickly consumed by introduced pigs, and as a result the cahow was thought to be extinct as early as the mid-1600s. But in 1951, 18 breeding pairs were rediscovered off the island’s East End, and subsequent recovery efforts have raised that number to 55 by 1998. The birds are currently protected in off-limits offshore sanctuaries.

Bermuda (the UK) is party to a number of relevant international environmental treaties, including: the World Heritage Convention, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, CITES, and the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species.

Types and Severity of Threats

In 1514, Spanish chronicler Oviedo y Valdes commented on the abundance of fish and bird life in Bermuda, and in 1593 shipwrecked English sailors joyfully discovered "an unbroken forest of cedar" from which to build their new vessel. But four centuries of settlement have all but eliminated Bermuda’s native flora and fauna. Predominant threats to the ecoregion include conversion of habitat for agriculture and development, introductions of exotic plant species, and sea-level rise.

By the end of the 17th century, settlers on Bermuda were already clearing the native land cover to make room for fields, gardens, hedgerows, and houses. They brought new pets and pests and planted ornamental plants, herbs and spices, and crops like tobacco and cotton. The conversion of land to agriculture continued through the 19th century, when Bermuda became a market garden for rapidly growing New York City. Over the centuries, residents cleared mangrove forests for development and used the bark in tanning and as fuel. The native cedar was felled for housing, shipbuilding, furniture, and export, while the thick-trunked palmetto was used for roof thatch, to weave fashionable hats, ropes, and baskets, and even to concoct a potent alcoholic beverage.

Over the past century, Bermuda’s agricultural importance has declined, but the pressures of development continue to grow. Twenty of Bermuda’s 150 islands are currently inhabited, and the country remains one of the most densely populated in the world. As the population has expanded over the last 20 years, and demand for housing has grown, undisturbed areas of natural vegetation have diminished rapidly. An estimated 10 percent of the land area is now covered by houses, roads, and other surfaces, and many peat marshes have been converted to landfills. The pressure on biodiversity is further intensified by the arrival of an estimated half million tourists each year.

Introductions of exotic species continue to crowd out native wildlife. An estimated 1500 plant species have been brought to the island over the centuries. Exotic trees like guava and mulberry threaten to replace native plant communities with monocultures, though conservationists employ culling and other techniques to keep these invasions at bay. Meanwhile, the activities of introduced birds like the great kiskadee (Pitangus sulphuratus) (brought in 1957 to control Anolis lizards) continue to aid in invasive plant dispersal.

In the future, sea-level rise will pose another serious threat to native vegetation as global temperatures increase, likely contributing to accelerated retreat of the region’s remaining mangrove forests.

Justification of Ecoregion Delineation

Bermuda’s position as an isolated oceanic island has contributed to a flora and fauna quite distinctive from any continental area or from Neotropical islands to the south. The ecoregion’s unique biological composition is also a product of prehistoric sea-level fluctuations as well as a lack of anthropogenic influence prior to the 1600s.

adapted by : http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bermuda_subtropical_conifer_forests

Some Facts About Climate

Adapted by: http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/climate.htm
The sun's rays hit the equator at a direct angle between 23 ° N and 23 ° S latitude. Radiation that reaches the atmosphere here is at its most intense.
In all other cases, the rays arrive at an angle to the surface and are less intense. The closer a place is to the poles, the smaller the angle and therefore the less intense the radiation.
Our climate system is based on the location of these hot and cold air-mass regions and the atmospheric circulation created by trade winds and westerlies.
Trade winds north of the equator blow from the northeast. South of the equator, they blow from the southeast. The trade winds of the two hemispheres meet near the equator, causing the air to rise. As the rising air cools, clouds and rain develop. The resulting bands of cloudy and rainy weather near the equator create tropical conditions.
Westerlies blow from the southwest on the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. Westerlies steer storms from west to east across middle latitudes.
Both westerlies and trade winds blow away from the 30 ° latitude belt. Over large areas centered at 30 ° latitude, surface winds are light. Air slowly descends to replace the air that blows away. Any moisture the air contains evaporates in the intense heat. The tropical deserts, such as the Sahara of Africa and the Sonoran of Mexico, exist under these regions.

World Climate Zones

Have you ever wondered why one area of the world is a desert, another a grassland, and another a rainforest? Why are there different forests and deserts, and why are there different types of life in each area? The answer is climate.
Climate is the characteristic condition of the atmosphere near the earth's surface at a certain place on earth. It is the long-term weather of that area (at least 30 years). This includes the region's general pattern of weather conditions, seasons and weather extremes like hurricanes, droughts, or rainy periods. Two of the most important factors determining an area's climate are air temperature and precipitation.
World biomes are controlled by climate. The climate of a region will determine what plants will grow there, and what animals will inhabit it. All three components, climate, plants and animals are interwoven to create the fabric of a biome
Adapted by :http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/climate.htm